XRD works by directing X-rays onto a crystalline material and analyzing the angles and intensities of the diffracted beams. The atomic planes within the crystal act as a three-dimensional grating, ...

X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a powerful non-destructive analytical technique used to evaluate crystalline materials and determine their structural properties. As one of the most widely used ...

Unlike optical microscopy, SEM does not rely on light waves but instead uses a beam of electrons to interact with materials, enabling magnifications up to 300,000× and resolutions approaching 1 nm. 1 ...