Diagnostic items can be designed to collect specific and fine-grained information about students’ cognitive strengths and weaknesses (Leighton and Gierl, 2007; Keeley and Tobey, 2011; van der Kleij et ...

We examined how children's strategy choices in solving complex subtraction problems are related to grade and to variations in problem complexity. In two studies, third- and fifth-grade children (N≈160 ...

In fourth grade, students focus most on using all four operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division - to solve multi-step word problems involving multi-digit numbers. Fourth-grade ...

When solving subtraction problems such as 83-46, children use the direct subtraction (DS) strategy (e.g., 83 - 40 = 43, 43 - 6 = 37) or the subtraction by addition (SBA) strategy (e.g., 46 + 4 = 50, ...