The analytical study of science and innovation—also termed metascience, science of science, scientometrics, technometrics, among others—is becoming increasingly critical as global research and ...

We use computers close computerA device that processes information by following a set of rules called a program., computing devices and computer systems close computer systemA series of connected ...

Between 1930 and 1968, a biologist named Ludwig von Bertalanffy observed that scientists primarily experimented with closed systems. In other words, they assumed all of the variables that might affect ...